Aportaciones de la picofarmacología al trataamiento de los trastornos de la personalidad (II)grupos farmacológicos empleados en el tratamiento de los trastornos de personalidad

  1. Alamo González, Cecilio
  2. Betés de Toro, Mariano
  3. López Muñoz, Francisco
  4. Molina Martín, Juan de Dios
Revista:
EduPsykhé: Revista de psicología y educación

ISSN: 1579-0207

Año de publicación: 2011

Volumen: 10

Número: 2

Páginas: 231-276

Tipo: Artículo

DIALNET GOOGLE SCHOLAR lock_openDialnet editor

Otras publicaciones en: EduPsykhé: Revista de psicología y educación

Resumen

Desafortunadamente, los trastornos de personalidad han sido excluidos habitualmente de los ensayos farmacológicos por problemas conceptuales o de medida. Esta falta de estudios, más que la existencia de evidencia negativa, ha llevado a que tradicionalmente se haya considerado que los sujetos con un trastorno de personalidad no se pudieran beneficiar de un adecuado tratamiento farmacológico. Los pacientes que sufren trastorno de personalidad (TP) muestran un funcionamiento social e interpersonal significativamente peor, consumiendo recursos socio-sanitarios con unos pobres resultados. En los TP, la farmacoterapia se utiliza para tratar aspectos específicos, como son los síntomas cognitivos perceptuales, afectivos o los derivados de la impulsividad. Debido a que es un fenómeno polimórfico, se utilizan diferentes tipos de psicofármacos, como por ejemplo, antipsicóticos, antidepresivos o estabilizadores del ánimo. Ha habido pocos intentos sistemáticos de validar los actuales algoritmos de tratamiento de los trastornos de personalidad severos. Esto ha hace que en el momento actual no haya guías en la literatura para el uso de farmacoterapia en el manejo de los TP. El objetivo de este trabajo es llevar a cabo una revisión de los estudios sobre eficacia y tolerabilidad de los psicofármacos en los TP.

Referencias bibliográficas

  • Abraham P.F. y Calabrese J.R. Evidenced-based pharmacologic treatment of borderline personality disorder: A shift from SSRIs to anticonvulsants and atypical antipsychotics? Journal of Affective Disorders 2008; 111(1): 21-30.
  • Adityanjee, Romine A., Brown E., Thuras P., Lee S. and Schulz S.C. Quetiapine in patients with borderline personality disorder: An open-label trial Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 2008; 20 (4): 219-226
  • Alam M., Klass D., Luchins D.. Divalproex sodium, valproic acid and carbamazepine in aggression. Presented at the 35th Annual New Clinical Drug Evaluation Unit Program meeting. Orlando, FL, May 31-June 3, 1995.
  • Alamo C., Cuenca E., López-Muñoz F. Perfil receptorial diferencial de los nuevos antipsicóticos. Arch Neurobiol 1995; 58: 245-262.
  • Alamo C., Cuenca E., López-Muñoz F. Antipsicóticos atípicos: perfil receptorial. En: Nuevos Antipsicóticos Atípicos (García Ribera C, ed.). Masson S.A., Barcelona, 1996; 1-24.
  • Alamo C., López-Muñoz F., Cuenca E. Fármacos ansiolíticos. En: Fundamentos Biológicos en Psiquiatría (Cervilla JA, García-Ribera C, eds.). Masson S.A., Barcelona, 1999; 299-314.
  • Alamo C., López-Muñoz F., Cuenca E. Avances recientes en neuropsicofarmacología. En cerebro y salud mental. Ed. Mapffre. 2002. 1: 3-84.
  • Alamo C., López-Muñoz F., Cuenca E. Mecanismo de acción de los fármacos antipsicóticos. En: Guía para el tratamiento de los pacientes con esquizofrenia (Rubio G, Hernández JA, Jiménez-Arriero MA, Palomo T, eds.). Fundación Cerebro y Mente, Madrid, 2002; 147-172.
  • Alamo C., López-Muñoz F., Cuenca E. Farmacoterapia del trastorno bipolar. En: Avances en Farmacología y Farmacoterapia, Módulo II, Avances en Farmacología del Sistema Nervioso (Consejo General de Colegios Oficiales de Farmacéuticos de España, ed.). Acción Médica, S.A., Madrid, 2003; 155-190.
  • Alamo C., López-Muñoz F., Cuenca E.. Fármacos antidepresivos. En: Avances en Farmacología y Farmacoterapia, Módulo II, Avances en Farmacología del Sistema Nervioso (Consejo General de Colegios Oficiales de Farmacéuticos de España, ed.). Acción Médica, S.A., Madrid, 2003; 191-237.
  • Alamo C, Betés M, López-Muñoz F, Molina JD. Aportaciones de la psicofarmacología al tratamiento de los trastornos de la personalidad (I): Fundamentos neurobiológicos y problemas metodológicos. EduPsykhé. Revista de Psicología y Educación 2010; 9 (2): 235-262
  • American Psychiatric Association. Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with borderline personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158: 1-52.
  • Arnsten A.F.T., Cai J.X., Murphy B.L., et al. Dopamine D1 receptor mechanisms in the cognitive performance of young adult and aged monkeys. Psychopharmacology 1994; 116: 143-151.
  • Bai O., Chlan-Fourney J., Bowen R., et al. Expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA in rat hippocampus after treatment with antipsychotic drugs. J Neurosci Res 2003; 71:127-131.
  • Bellino S., Paradiso E. and Bogetto F. Efficacy and tolerability of aripiprazole augmentation in sertraline-resistant patients with borderline personality disorder. Psychiatry Research 2008; 161(2): 206-212.
  • Bellino S., Paradiso E., Bozzatello P., Bogetto F. Efficacy and tolerability of duloxetine in the treatment of patients with borderline personality disorder: a pilot study. Journal of psychopharmacology 2010; 24 (3): 333-339.
  • Benedetti F., Sforzini L., Colombo C., et al. Low-dose clozapine in acute and continuation treatment of severe borderline personality disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59 (3): 103-107.
  • Bogenschutz M.P., George Nurnberg H. Olanzapine versus placebo in the treatment of borderline personality disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2004; 65 (1): 104-109.
  • Bond A.J., Lader M.H. Benzodiazepines and aggression En: Psychopharmacology of Aggression (Sandler M, eds.). Raven Press, New York, 1979; 173-182.
  • Bozzatello P., Bellino S., Rinaldi C., Bogetto F.. Paliperidone in the treatment of borderline personality disorder: A pilot study of efficacy and tolerability. Journal of Cancer Educatio 2009; 24 SUPPL. 1 (S513)
  • Brembs B., Lorenzetti F.D., Reyes F.D. et al. Operant reward learning in Aplisia: neuronal correlates and mechanisms. Science 2002; 296: 1.706-1.709.
  • Briley M., Moret C. Neurobiological mechanisms involved in antidepressant therapies. Clin Neuropharmacol 1993; 16: 387-400.
  • Caley CHF. The pharmacotherapy of human aggression: a review. J Pharm Pract 1996; IX: 133-143.
  • Carrasco J.L., Díaz M. Bases biológicas de los trastornos de personalidad. En: Rubio V, Pérez A (eds.). Trastornos de la personalidad 2003; 3: 67-76.
  • Carrasco J.L., Sáiz J., Hollander E., et al. Low platelet monoamine oxidase activity in pathological gambling. Acta Psychiat Scand. 1994. 90: 427-431.
  • Cassano P., Lattanzi L., Pini S., et al. Topiramate for self-mutilation in a patient with borderline personality disorder. Bipolar Disord 2001; 3: 161.
  • Chengappa K.N., Ebeling T., Kang J.S., et al. Clozapine reduces severe self-mutilation and aggression in psychotic patients with borderline personality disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1999; 60 (7): 477-484.
  • Coccaro E.F. Impulsive aggression and central serotonergic system function in humans: an example of a dimensional brain-behavior relationship. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1992; 7: 3-12.
  • Coccaro E.F. Neurotransmitter function in personality disorders. In: Silk K.R. (ed). Biology of Personality Disorders. American Psychiatric Press: Washington, DC, 1998: 1-25.
  • Coccaro E.F. Clinical outcome of psychopharmacologic treatment of borderline and schizotypal personality disordered subjects. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59 (1): 30-37.
  • Coccaro E.F., Astill J.L., Herbert H., et al. Fluoxetine treatment of impulsive aggression in DSM-III-R personality disorder patients. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1990; 10 (5): 373-375.
  • Coccaro E.F., Lawrence T., Trestman R., et al. Growth hormone responses to intravenous clonidine challenge correlate with behavioral irritability in psychiatric patients and healthy volunteers. Psychiatry Res 1991; 39: 129-139.
  • Coccaro E.F., Kavoussi R.J. Fluoxetine and impulsive aggressive behavior in personality-disordered subjects. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997; 54: 1.081-.1088.
  • Coccaro E.F., Kavoussi R.J., Cooper T.B., et al. Central serotonin activity and aggression: inverse relationship with prolactin response to d-fenfluramine, but not CSF 5-HIAA concentration, in human subjects. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154 (10): 1.430-1.435.
  • Coccaro E.F., Lee R., McCloskey M. Norepinephrine function in personality disorder: plasma free MHPG correlates inversely with life history of aggression. CNS Spectr 2003; 8 (10): 731-736.
  • Coccaro EF, Siever LJ. The neuropsychopharmacology of personality disorders. En: Neuropsychopharmacology: The fourth generation of progress 2000. 1.565- 1.579
  • Colella R., Ratey J., Glaser A. Paramenstrual aggression in a mentally retarded adult ameliorated by buspirone. Int J Psychiatry Med 1992; 22: 351-356.
  • Cornelius J.R., Soloff P.H., Perel J.M., et al. Continuation pharmacotherapy of borderline personality disorder with haloperidol and phenelzine. Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150 (12): 1.843-1.848.
  • Corrigan P.W., Yudofsky S.C., Silver J.M. Pharmacological and behavioral treatments for aggressive psychiatric inpatients. Hosp Com Psychiatry 1993; 44: 125-133.
  • Cowdry R.W., Gardner D.L. Pharmacotherapy of borderline personality disorder: alprazolam, carbamazepine, trifluoperazine, and tranylcypromine. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45: 111-119.
  • Craft M., Ismail I.A., Krishnamurti D., et al. Lithium in the treatment of aggression in mentally handicapped patients: a double-blind trial. Br J Psychiatry 1987; 150: 685-689.
  • Cuenca E., Alamo C., López-Muñoz F. Mecanismo de acción de las sales de litio. En: Clínica de Litio. Teoría y Práctica (Alvarez E., Pérez J., Pérez V., eds.). Publicaciones Permanyer, Barcelona, 2000; 11-30.
  • Cuenca E., Alamo C., López-Muñoz F. Impacto terapéutico y socioeconómico de la introducción clínica de los ISRS. En: Hechos y valores en psiquiatría (Baca E., Lázaro J., eds.). Editorial Triacastela, Madrid, 2003; 295-320.
  • De la Fuente J., Lostra F. A Trial of Carbamazepine in Bordeline personality disorder. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 1994; 4: 479-486.
  • Dietch J.T., Jennings R.K. Aggressive dyscontrol in patients treated with benzodiazepines. J Clin Psychiatry 1988; 49: 184-188.
  • Frankenburg F.R., Zanarini M.C. Clozapine treatment of borderline patients: a preliminary study. Compr Psychiatry 1993; 34 (6): 402-405.
  • Frankenburg F.R., Zanarini M.C. Divalproex sodium treatment of women with borderline personality disorder and bipolar II disorder: a double-blind placebocontrolled pilot study. J Clin Psychiatry 2002; 63: 442-446.
  • Freinhar J.P., Alvarez W.A. Clonazepam a novel therapeutic adjunct. Int J Psychiatry med 1985; 15: 321-328.
  • Friedel R.O. Dopamine Dysfunction in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Hypothesis. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004; March: 1-11.
  • Gardner D.L., Cowdry R.W. Development of melancholia during carbamazepine treatment in borderline personality disorder. J Clin Psycopharmacol 1986; 6: 236-239.
  • Gardner D.L., Cowdry R.W. Positive effects of carbamazepine on behavioral dyscontrol in borderline personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143: 519-522.
  • Goldberg T.E., Egan M.F., Gscheidle T. et al. Executive sub processes in working memory: relationship to catechol-o-methyltransferase val158met genotype and schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003; 60: 889-896.
  • Goldberg S.C., Schulz S.C., Schulz P.M. Borderline and schizotypal personality disorders treated with low-dose thiothixine versus placebo. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986; 43: 680-686.
  • Hansenne M., Pitchot W., Pinto E., et al. 5HT(1A) dysfunction in borderline personality disorder. Psychological medicine 2002; 32 (5): 935-941.
  • Herpertz S. State of the art “personality disorders”. European Psychiatry 2009; 24 SUPPL. 1 (S41)
  • Hollander E., Allen A., López R.P., et al. A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of divalproex sodium in borderline personality disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62: 199-203.
  • Hollander E., Tracy K.A., Swann A.C., et al. Divalproex in the treatment of impulsive aggression: efficacy in cluster B personality disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003;28:1.186-1.197.
  • Hollander E., Swann A.C., Coccaro E.F., et al. Impact of trait impulsivity and state aggression on divalproex versus placebo response on borderline personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162: 621-624.
  • Hymowitz P., Frances A.J., Jacobsberg L.B., et al. Neuroleptic treatment of schizotypal personality disorder. Compr Psychiatry 1986; 27: 267-271.
  • Ichikawa J., Dai J., O’Laughlin I.A. et al. Atypical, but not typical, antipsychotic drugs increase cortical acetylcholine release without an effect in the nucleus accumbens or striatum. Neuropsychopharmacology 2002; 26: 325-339.
  • Ichikawa J., Ishii H., Bonaccorso S., et al. 5-HT(2A) and D(2) receptor blockade increases cortical DA release via 5-HT(1A) receptor activation: a possible mechanism of atypical antipsychotic-induced cortical dopamine release. J Neurochem 2001; 76: 1.521-1.531.
  • Ingenhoven T., Lafay P., Rinne T., Passchier J., Duivenvoorden H. Effectiveness of pharmacotherapy for severe personality disorders: Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2010; 71(1): 14-25.
  • Kapur S., Zipursky R.B., Remington G. Clinical and theoretical implications of 5- HT2 and D2 receptor occupancy of clozapine, risperidone, and olanzapine in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 286-293.
  • Kavoussi R.J., Coccaro E.F. Divalproex sodium for impulsive aggressive behavior impatients with personality disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59: 676-680.
  • Kavoussi R.J., Liu J., Coccaro E. An open trial in personality disordered patients with impulsive aggression. J Clin Psychiatry 1994; 55 (4): 137-141.
  • Kemph J., DeVane C., Levine G., et al. Treatment of aggressive children with clonidine: Results of an open pilot study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1993; 32: 577-581.
  • Koenigsberg H.W., Reynolds D., Goodman M., et al. Risperidone in the treatment of schizotypal personality disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2003; 64 (6): 628-634.
  • Kuroki T., Meltzer H.Y., Ichikawa J. Effects of antipsychotic drugs on extracellular dopamine levels in rat medial prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1999; 288: 774-781.
  • LaWall J.S. Wesselius C.L. The use of lithium carbonate in borderline patients. J Psychiatr Treatment and Evaluation 1982; 4: 265-267. Links P., Steiner M., Boiago I., et al. Lithium therapy for borderline patients: preliminary findings. J Personal Disord 1990; 4: 173-181.
  • Lieb K., Völlm B., Rücker G., Timmer A., Stoffers J.M. Pharmacotherapy for borderline personality disorder: Cochrane systematic review of randomised trials. British Journal of Psychiatry 2010; 196(1): 4-12.
  • Loew T.H., Nickel M.K., Muelhbacher M., et al. Topiramate treatment for women with borderline personality disorder: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2006; 26: 61-66.
  • López-Muñoz F., Álamo C., Cuenca E. Psicofarmacología de la agresividad. En: Gómez-Jarabo G (ed). Violencia antítesis de la agresión 1999; 4: 277-337.
  • López-Muñoz F., Alamo C., Cuenca E. Agresividad y psicofármacos: reguladores e inductores de conductas agresivas. Psiquiatria.COM (revista electrónica), Jun (citado 1 Sep 1999), 3 (2). Disponible en URL: http://www.psiquiatria.com/psiquiatria/vol3num2/artic_7.htm, 1999.
  • Lucas P.B., Gardner D.L., Wolkowitz O.M., et al. Dysphoria associated with methylphenidate infusion in borderline personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1987; 144: 1.577-1.579.
  • Maiuro R.D., Avery D.H. Psychopharmacological treatment of aggressive behavior: implications for domestically violent men. Violence Victims 1996; 11: 239-261.
  • Mandel P., Mack G., Kempf E. Molecular basis of some models of aggressive behavior. En: Psychopharmacology of Aggression (Sandler M, ed.). Raven Press, New York, 1979; 95-110.
  • Markovitz P. Pharmacotherapy of impulsivity, aggression and related disorders. In: Hollander E, Stein D. (eds.). Impulsivity and Aggression. West Sussex, United Kingdom: John Wiley and Son 1995: 263-287.
  • Markovitz P.J., Calabresse J.R., Schulz S.C., et al. Fluoxetine in the treatment of borderline and schizotypal personality disorders. Am J Psychiatry 1991; 148 (8): 1.064-1.067.
  • Markovitz P.J., Wagner S.C. Venlafaxine in the treatment of bordeline personality disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull 1995; 31: 773-777.
  • Meltzer H.Y. What’s atypical about atypical antipsychotic drugs? Curr Opin in Pharm 2004; 4: 53–57.
  • Miczek K.A., Barry H. Pharmacology of sex and aggression. En: Behavioral Pharmacology (Glick SD, Goldfarb J, eds.). Mosby, St. Louis, 1976; 176-257.
  • Mircoli G., Bascioni S., Lucarelli C., Bellantuono C. Atypical antipsychotic drugs in the drug treatment of borderline personality disorder: A systematic review.Quaderni Italiani di Psichiatria 2010; 29 (2): 51-58.
  • Millan M.J. Improving the treatment of schizophrenia: focus on serotonin (5- HT1A) receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2000; 295: 853-861.
  • Mobascher A., Mobascher J., Schlemper V., et al. Aripiprazol pharmacotherapy of borderline personality disorder. Pharmacopsychiatry 2006; 39: 111-112.
  • Montgomery S.A., Montgomery D. Pharmacological prevention of suicidal behaviour. J Affect Disord 1982; 4: 291-298. Neppe V. Carbamazepine in the psychiatric patient. Lancet 1982; ii: 334.
  • Newton-Howes G., Tyrer P. Pharmacotherapy for personality disorders. Expert Opinion Pharmacother 2003; 4 (10): 1.643-1.649.
  • Nickel M.K., Nickel C., Muehlbacher M., et al. Topiramate treatment of aggression in female borderline personality disorder patients: a double-blind, placebocontrolled study. J Clin Psychiatry 2004; 65: 1.515-1.519.
  • Nickel M.K., Muehlbacher M., Nickel C., et al. Aripiprazole in the treatment of patients with borderline personality disorder: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. An J Psychiatry 2006; 163: 833-838.
  • Ninan I., Jardemark K.E., Wang R.Y. Olanzapine and clozapine but not haloperidol reverse subchronic phencyclidine-induced functional hyperactivity of Nmethyl-D-aspartate receptors in pyramidal cells of the rat medial prefrontal cortex. Neuropharmacology 2003; 44: 462-472.
  • Northern M.J. Fluoxetine in borderline personality disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatr 1989; 13: 885-893.
  • Parsons B., Quitking F.M., McGrath P.J., et al. Pheneizine, imipramine and placebo in bordeline patients meeting criteria for atypical depression. Psychopharmacol Bull 1989; 25 (4): 524-534.
  • Pérez A., Rubio V., Molina R., et al. Tratamiento psicofarmacológico de los trastornos de la personalidad. En: Rubio V, Pérez A (eds.). Trastornos de la personalidad 2003. 8: 345-358.
  • Perrella C., Carrus D., Costa E., Schifano F. Quetiapine for the treatment of borderline personality disorder; an opel-label study. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2007; 31: 158-163.
  • Pinto O.C., Akiskal H.S. Lamotrigine as promising approach to borderline personality: an open case series without concurrent DSM-IV. Major mood disorder. J Affect Disord 1998; 51: 333-343.
  • Post R.M. Time course of clinical effects of carbamazepine. Implications for mechanisms of action. J Clin Psychiatry 1988; 49 (suppl 4): 35-46.
  • Preston G.A., Marchant B.K., Reimherr F.W., et al. Borderline personality disorder in patients with bipolar disorder and response to lamotrigine. J Affect Dis 2004; 79: 297-303.
  • Ratey J., Sovner R., Parks A., et al: Buspirone treatment of aggression and anxiety in mentally retarded patients: a multiple-baseline, placebo lead-in study. J Clin Psychiatry 1991; 52: 159-162.
  • Reich D.B., Zanarini M.C., Bieri K A. A preliminary study of lamotrigine in the treatment of affective instability in borderline personality disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 2009; 24(5): 270-275.
  • Richelson E. Receptor Pharmacology of Neuroleptics: Relation to Clinical Effects. J Clin Psychiatry 1999; 60 (suppl. 10): 5-14.
  • Ricote Trigo F., Sánchez Lequerica A., Cañas de Paz F. Tratamiento farmacológico de los trastornos de la personalidad. En J. Vallejo Ruiloba y C. Leal Cercós (editores): Tratado de Psiquiatría. Vol II (2ª edición). Barcelona: Ars Médica, 2010, pp. 1.692-1.712.
  • Rinne T., Van den Brink W., Wouters L., et al. SSRI treatment of borderline personality disorder: a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial for female patients with borderline personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 2.048-2.054.
  • Rocca P., Marchiaro L., Cocuzza E., et al. Treatment of borderline personality disorder with risperidone. J Clin Psychiatry 2002; 63 (3): 241-244.
  • Salzman C., Wolfson A.N., Schatzberg A., et al. Effect of fluoxetine on anger in symptomatic volunteers with borderline personality disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1995; 15 (1): 23-29.
  • Sanislow C.A., McGlashan T.H. Treatment outcome of personality disorders. Can J Psychiatry 1998; 43: 237-250.
  • Sánchez C. 5HT1A receptors in the treatment of aggression and impulse control disorders. En: Maes M, Coccaro EF, editores. Neurobiology and clinical views of aggression and impulsivity. J. Wiley and Sons, 1998; p. 183-196.
  • Schulz S.C., Schulz P.M., Dommisse C., et al. Amphetamine response in borderline patients. Psychiatry Res 1985; 15: 97-108.
  • Schulz S.C., Camlin K.L., Berry S.A., et al. Olanzapine safety and efficacy in patients with borderline personality disorder and comorbid dysthymia. Biol Psychiatry 1999; 46 (10): 1.429-1.435.
  • Serban G., Siegel S. Response of borderline and schizotypal patients to small doses of thiothixene and haloperidol. Am J Psychiatry 1984; 141: 1.455-1.458.
  • Sheard MH. Lithium in the treatment of aggression. J Nerv Ment Dis 1975; 160: 108-118.
  • Sheard M.H., Marini J.L., Bridges Cl, et al. The effect of lithium on impulsive aggressive behavior in man. Am J Psychiatry 1976; 133: 1.409-1.413.
  • Siever L.J. The biology of the boundaries of schizophrenia. In Advances Neuropsychiatry and Psycopharmachology, Vol 1: Schizophrenia Research. Tamminga C.A., Schulz S.C., eds. New York: Raven, 1991, pp. 181-191.
  • Siever L.J., Trestman R.L. The serotonin system and aggressive personality disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 8 (suppl 2): 33-39, 1993.
  • Siever L.J., Amin F., Coccaro E.F., et al. Plasma homovanillic acid in schizotypal personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1991; 148: 1.246-1.248.
  • Siever L.J., Amin F., Coccaro E.F., et al. Cerebrospinal homovanillic acid in schizotypal personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150: 149-151.
  • Siever L.J., Kalus O.F., Keefe R.S. The boudaries of schizophrenia. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1993; 16: 217-244.
  • Siever L.J., Koenigsberg H.W., Harvey P., et al. Cognitive and brain function in schizotypal personality disorder. Schizophr Res 2002; 54: 157-167.
  • Silva H., Jerez S., Paredes A., et al. Fluoxetine in the treatment of borderline personality disorder. Actas Luso Esp Neurol Psiquiatr Cienc Afines 1997; 25 (6): 391-395.
  • Simeon D., Baker B., Chaplin W., et al. An open-label trial of divalproex extendedrelease in the treatment of borderline personality disorder. CNS Spectr 2007;12:439-443.
  • Simpson E.B., Yen S., Costello E., et al. Combined dialectical behavior therapy and fluoxetine in the treatment of borderline personality disorder. J. Clin Psychiatry 2004;65:379-385.
  • Skodol A.E., Siever L.J., Livesley W.J., et al. The borderline diagnosis II: biology, genetics, and clinical course. Biol Psychiatry 2002; 51: 951-963.
  • Soler J., Campins M.J., Pérez V., et al. Olanzapine and cognitive-behavioural group therapy in borderline personality disorder. Actas Esp Psiquiatr 2001; 29 (2): 85-90.
  • Soler J., Pascual J.C., Campins J., et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of dialectic behavior therapy plus olanzapine for borderline personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162:1.221-1.224.
  • Soloff P.H., George A., Nathan R.S., et al. Progress in pharmacotherapy of borderline disorders. A double-blind study of amitriptyline, haloperidol, and placebo. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986; 43: 691-697.
  • Soloff P.H., George A., Nathan R.S., et al. Amitriptyline versus haloperidol in borderlines: final outcomes and predictors of response. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1989; 9: 238-246.
  • Soloff P.H., Cornelius J., George A., et al. Efficacy of phenelzine and haloperidol in borderline personality disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50: 377-385.
  • Soloff P.H., Meltzer C.C., Greer P.J., et al. A fenfluramine-activated FDG-PET study of borderline personality disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 47: 540-547.
  • Soderstrom H., Blennow K., Manhem A., et al. CSF studies in violent offenders. I. 5-HIAA as a negative and HVA as a positive predictor of psychopathy. J Neural Transm 2001; 108: 869-878.
  • Stahl S.M, Shayegan D.K. The Psychopharmacology of Ziprasidone: Receptor-Binding Properties and Real-World Psychiatric Practice. J Clin Psychiatry 2003; 64 (Suppl. 19): 6-12.
  • Stein D, Simeon D, Frenkel M, et al. An open trial of valproate in borderline personality disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1995; 56: 506-510.
  • Steinberg B.J., Trestman R., Mitropoulou V., et al. Depressive response to physostigmine challenge in borderline personality disorder patients. Neuropsychopharmacology 1997; 17 (4): 264-273.
  • Stoffers J., Völlm B., Rücker G., et al. (2009). Pharmacotherapy of borderline personality disorder: A metaanalysis of randomised controlled trials. Eur Psychiatry. 24 (Suppl. 1, 1086).
  • Swann A.C. Neuroreceptor mechanisms of aggression and its treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 2003; 64 (4): 26-35.
  • Van der Bijl P., Roelofse J.A. Disinhibitory reactions to benzodiazepines: a review. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1991; 49: 519-523.
  • Van Den Eynde F., De Saedeleer S., Naudts K., Day J., Vogels C., Van Heeringen C., Audenaert K. Quetiapine treatment and improved cognitive functioning in borderline personality disorder. Human Psychopharmacology 2009; 24(8): 646-649.
  • Vasile D., Vasiliu O., Terpan M., Vasile M.L., Tudor C., Bogdan V., Mangalagiu A.G., Grigorescu G., Ojog D. Low doses risperidone in cluster a personality disorder- A prospective study. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2010; 13 SUPPL. 1 (110).
  • Villeneuve E., Lemelin S. Open-label study of atypical neuroleptic quetiapine for treatment of borderline personality disorder: Impulsivity as main target. J Clin Psychiatry 2005;66:1298-1303.
  • Walker C., Thomas J., Allen T.S. Treating impulsivity, irritability, and aggression of antisocial personality disorder with quetiapine. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol 2003; 47: 556-567.
  • Wilcox J. Divalproex sodium in the treatment of aggressive behavior. Ann Clin Psychiatry 1994; 6: 17-20.
  • Wilcox J.A. Divalproex sodium as a treatment for borderline personality disorder. Ann Clin Psychiatry 1995; 7: 33-37.
  • Worrall E.P., Moody J.P., Naylor G.J. Lithium in non-manic depressives: antiaggressive effect and red blood cell lithium values. Br J Psychiatry 1975; 126: 464-468.
  • Zanarini M. C. Update on Pharmacotherapy of Borderline Personality Disorder. Current Psychiatry Reports 2004; 6: 66-70.
  • Zanarini M.C., Frankenburg F.R. Olanzapine treatment of female borderline personality disorder patients: a double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62: 849-854.
  • Zanarini M.C., Frankenburg F.R. Omega-3 fatty acid treatment of women with borderline personality disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160: 167-169.
  • Zanarini M.C., Vujanovic A.A., Parachini E.A., et al. Zanarini Rating Scale for borderline personality disorder (ZAN-BPD): a continuous measure of DSM-IV borderline psychopathology. J Personal Disord 2003; 17: 233-242.
  • Zullino D.F., Quinche P., Hafliger T., et al. Olanzapine improves social dysfunction in cluster B personality disorder. Hum Psychopharmacol 2002; 17 (5): 247-251.
Fuente de los datos: Dialnet