Revisión sistemática de la relación entre sintomatología postraumática y conductas suicidas

  1. Esther González Gómez 1
  2. María Crespo López 2
  1. 1 Universidad Complutense de Madrid
    info

    Universidad Complutense de Madrid

    Madrid, España

    ROR 02p0gd045

  2. 2 UCM
Journal:
Revista de psicopatología y psicología clínica

ISSN: 1136-5420

Year of publication: 2022

Volume: 27

Issue: 1

Pages: 73-90

Type: Article

DOI: 10.5944/RPPC.27757 DIALNET GOOGLE SCHOLAR lock_openOpen access editor

More publications in: Revista de psicopatología y psicología clínica

Abstract

Existe evidencia contrastada de la relación entre el trastorno de estrés postraumático (TEPT) y el suicidio. No obstante, existen pocas investigaciones sobre las relaciones diferenciales entre los grupos de síntomas de TEPT (evitación, re-experimentación, hiperactivación y alteraciones negativas cognitivas y del estado de ánimo [ANCE]) y la conducta suicida. La presente revisión sistemática estudia la relación entre estos grupos de síntomas postraumáticos y la conducta suicida (ideación e intentos suicidas). La revisión incluye 20 artículos procedentes de las bases de datos PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES y Web of Science. Los resultados apuntan que la hiperactivación predice de forma significativa la ideación suicida en el 53.33% de los estudios revisados y los intentos de suicidio en el 42.85% de los mismos. La reducción de los síntomas de hiperactivación debe considerarse un objetivo prioritario en la elaboración de intervenciones terapéuticas para reducir el riesgo suicida en personas con cuadros postraumáticos o diagnóstico de TEPT

Bibliographic References

  • American Psychiatric Association (1980). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders (3thEdition). Author.
  • American Psychiatric Association (1987). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders (3thEdition - Revised). Author.
  • American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders (4th Edition). Author.
  • American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders (4th Edition - Revised). Author.
  • American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders (5th Edition). Author.
  • Asmundson, G.J., Stapleton, J.A., & Taylor, S. (2004). Are avoidance and numbing distinct PTSD symptom clusters? Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 17(6), 467-475. https://doi.org/10.1007/Sl0960-004-5795
  • Armour, C., Tsai, J., Durham, T.A., Charak, R., Biehn, T.L., Elhai, J.D., & Pietrzak, R.H. (2015). Dimensional structure of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress symptoms: Support for a hybrid Anhedonia and Externalizing Behaviors model. Journal of psychiatric research, 61, 106-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.10.012
  • Barr, N., Kintzle, S., Sullivan, K., & Castro, C. (2018). Suicidality and nonsuicidal high-risk behavior in military veterans: How does PTSD symptom presentation relate to behavioral risk? Traumatology, 24(1), 55–61. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000133
  • Barr, N.U., Sullivan, K., Kintzle, S., & Castro, C.A. (2016). PTSD symptoms, suicidality and non-suicidal risk to life behavior in a mixed sample of pre-and post-9/11 veterans. Social work in mental health, 14(5), 465-473. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332985.2015.1081666
  • Beck, A.T., & Steer, R.A. (1991). Manual for the Beck scale for suicide ideation. Psychological Corporation.
  • Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., & Brown, G.K. (1996). Beck depression inventory-II. San Antonio, 78(2), 490-498.
  • Bell, J.B., & Nye, E.C. (2007). Specific symptoms predict suicidal ideation in Vietnam combat veterans with chronic post-traumatic stress disorder. Military medicine, 172(11), 1144-1147. https://doi.org/10.7205/milmed.172.11.1144
  • Ben-Ya’acov, Y., & Amir, M. (2004). Posttraumatic symptoms and suicide risk. Personality and Individual Differences, 36(6), 1257-1264. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(03)00003-5
  • Benavides-Mora, V.K., Villota-Melo, N.G., & Villalobos-Galvis, F.H. (2019). Conducta suicida en Colombia: Una revisión sistemática. Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica, 24(3). https://doi.org/10.5944/rppc.24251
  • Blake, D.D., Weathers, F.W., Nagy, L.M., Kaloupek, D.G., Gusman, F.D., Charney, D.S., & Keane, T.M. (1995). The development of a clinician-administered PTSD scale. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 75-90. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490080106
  • Boffa, J.W., Stanley, I.H., Hom, M.A., Norr, A.M., Joiner, T.E., & Schmidt, N.B. (2017). PTSD symptoms and suicidal thoughts and behaviors among firefighters. Journal of psychiatric research, 84, 277-283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.10.014
  • Briere, J. (1995). Trauma Symptom Inventory professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources.
  • Briere, J. (2001). Detailed Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress (DAPS). Psychological Assessment Resources.
  • Briere, J., Godbout, N., & Dias, C. (2015). Cumulative trauma, hyperarousal, and suicidality in the general population: A path analysis. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 16(2), 153-169. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2014.970265
  • Brown, K.L. (2013). The connection between post-traumatic stress disorder and suicide behavior: what links post-traumatic stress disorder to suicide? (Disertación, University of Toledo). http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=toledo1372598026
  • Brown, L.A., Contractor, A., & Benhamou, K. (2018). Posttraumatic stress disorder clusters and suicidal ideation. Psychiatry Research, 270, 238-245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.09.030
  • Bush, K., Kivlahan, D.R., McDonell, M.B., Fihn, S.D., & Bradley, K.A. (1998). The AUDIT alcohol consumption questions (AUDIT-C): an effective brief screening test for problem drinking. Archives of Internal Medicine, 158(16), 1789-1795. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.158.16.1789
  • Chu, C., Buchman-Schmitt, J.M., Michaels, M.S., Ribeiro, J.D., & Joiner, T. (2013). Discussing disgust: The role of disgust with life in suicide. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 6(3), 235-247. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2013.6.3.235
  • Davidson, J.R., Book, S.W., Colket, J.T., Tupler, L.A., Roth, S., David, D., & Davison, R.M. (1997). Assessment of a new self-rating scale for post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 27(1), 153-160. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291796004229
  • Davis, M.T., Witte, T.K., Weathers, F.W., & Blevins, C.A. (2014). The role of posttraumatic stress disorder symptom clusters in the prediction of passive suicidal ideation. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6(Suppl 1), S82–S91. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035966
  • Derogatis, L.R. (1977). The SCL-90 manual F: scoring, administration and procedures of the SCL-90. John Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Clinical Psychometrics Unit.
  • Derogatis, L.R., & Spencer, P.M. (1993). Brief symptom inventory: BSI (Vol. 18). Pearson.
  • Eurostat (European Statistical Office of the European Commission) (20 de septiembre, 2019). Death due to suicide, by gender. Standardised death rate by 100000 inhabitants. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tps00122/default/table?lang=en
  • Elhai, J.D., Biehn, T.L., Armour, C., Klopper, J.J., Frueh, B.C., & Palmieri, P.A. (2011). Evidence for a unique PTSD construct represented by PTSD’s D1–D3 symptoms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(3), 340-345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.10.007
  • Endicott, J., Nee, J., Harrison, W., & Blumenthal, R. (1993). Quality of Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire: a new measure. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 29, 321–326.
  • Feeny, N.C., Zoellner, L.A., Fitzgibbons, L.A., & Foa, E.B. (2000). Exploring the roles of emotional numbing, depression, and dissociation in PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13(3), 489-498. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1007789409330
  • Fernández, V., Martínez, A., Castro, M., Alcántara-López, M., & López-Soler, C. (2020). Trastorno de estrés postraumático en la infancia y la adolescencia: Cuestiones sobre diagnóstico y evaluación. Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica, 25(3), 207-217. https://doi.org/10.5944/rppc.29015
  • First, M.B., Spitzer, R.L., Williams, J.B.W., & Gibbon, M. (1997). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-Clinician Version (SCID-CV). American Psychiatric Press.
  • First, M., Spitzer, R., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. (2002). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM–IV–TRAxis I Disorders, Research Version, Patient Edition. (SCID-I/P). Biometrics Research, New York State Psychiatric Institute.
  • Foa, E.B. (1995). The posttraumatic diagnostic scale (PDS) manual. Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems, 1-5.
  • Foa, E.B., McLean, C.P., Zang, Y., Zhong, J., Powers, M.B., Kauffman, B.Y., & Knowles, K. (2016). Psychometric properties of the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale for DSM–5 (PDS–5). Psychological Assessment, 28(10), 1166. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000258
  • Goodman, L.A., Corcoran, C., Turner, K., Yuan, N., & Green, B.L. (1998). Assessing traumatic event exposure: General issues and preliminary findings for the Stressful Life Events Screening Questionnaire. Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 11(3), 521-542. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024456713321
  • Grant, B.F., Hasin, D.S., Blanco, C., Stinson, F.S., Chou, S.P., Goldstein, R.B., & Huang, B. (2005). The epidemiology of social anxiety disorder in the United States: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. The Journal of clinical psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v66n1102
  • Guerra, V.S., & Calhoun, P.S. (2011). Examining the relation between posttraumatic stress disorder and suicidal ideation in an OEF/OIF veteran sample. Journal of anxiety disorders, 25(1), 12-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.06.025
  • Horowitz, M. (1986). Stress response syndromes. Jason Aronson.
  • Iannuzzo, R.W., Jaeger, J., Goldberg, J.F., Kafantaris, V., & Sublette, M.E. (2006). Development and reliability of the HAM-D/MADRS interview: an integrated depression symptom rating scale. Psychiatry Research, 145(1), 21-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2005.10.009
  • Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE) (19 de diciembre, 2018). Defunciones según la Causa de Muerte – Año 2017. Instituto Nacional de Estadística. Notas de prensa. https://www.ine.es/prensa/edcm_2017.pdf
  • Joiner, T.E. (2005). Why people die by suicide. Harvard University Press.
  • Joiner, T.E., & Stanley, I.H. (2016). Can the phenomenology of a suicidal crisis be usefully understood as a suite of antipredator defensive reactions? Psychiatry, 79(2), 107-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.2016.1142800
  • Kashdan, T.B., Elhai, J.D., & Frueh, B.C. (2006). Anhedonia and emotional numbing in combat veterans with PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(3), 457-467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.03.001
  • Keane, T.M., Fairbank, J.A., Caddell, J.M., Zimering, R.T., Taylor, K.L., & Mora, C.A. (1989). Clinical evaluation of a measure to assess combat exposure. Psychological Assessment, 1(1), 53–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.1.1.53
  • King, L.A., King, D.W., Vogt, D.S., Knight, J., & Samper, R.E. (2006). Deployment Risk and Resilience Inventory: A collection of measures for studying deployment-related experiences of military personnel and veterans. Military Psychology, 18(2), 89-120. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327876mp1802_1
  • Krysinska, K., & Lester, D. (2010). Post-traumatic stress disorder and suicide risk: A systematic review. Archives of Suicide Research, 14, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811110903478997
  • Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R.L., & Williams, J.B. (2001). The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16(9), 606-613. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x
  • Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R.L., Williams, J.B., & Löwe, B. (2009). An ultra-brief screening scale for anxiety and depression: the PHQ–4. Psychosomatics, 50(6), 613-621. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0033-3182(09)70864-3
  • Law, K.C., Allan, N.P., Kolnogorova, K., & Stecker, T. (2019). An examination of PTSD symptoms and their effects on suicidal ideation and behavior in non-treatment seeking veterans. Psychiatry Research, 274, 12-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.02.004
  • Legarreta, M., Graham, J., North, L., Bueler, C.E., McGlade, E., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2015). DSM–5 posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms associated with suicide behaviors in veterans. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 7(3), 277–285. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000026
  • Leiner, A.S., Compton, M.T., Houry, D., & Kaslow, N.J. (2008). Intimate partner violence, psychological distress, and suicidality: A path model using data from African American women seeking care in an urban emergency department. Journal of Family Violence, 23(6), 473-481. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-008-9174-7
  • Lemaire, C.M., & Graham, D.P. (2011). Factors associated with suicidal ideation in OEF/OIF veterans. Journal of Affective Disorders, 130(1-2), 231-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2010.10.021
  • Linehan, M.M., Comtois, K.A., Brown, M.Z., Heard, H.L., & Wagner, A. (2006). Suicide Attempt Self-Injury Interview (SASII): development, reliability, and validity of a scale to assess suicide attempts and intentional self-injury. Psychological Assessment, 18(3), 303. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.18.3.303
  • McFall, M., Fontana, A., Raskind, M., & Rosenheck, R. (1999). Analysis of violent behavior in Vietnam combat veteran psychiatric inpatients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 12(3), 501-517. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024771121189
  • Metalsky, G.I., & Joiner, T.E. (1997). The hopelessness depression symptom questionnaire. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 21(3), 359-384. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021882717784
  • Moher, D., Shamseer, L., Clarke, M., Ghersi, D., Liberati, A., Petticrew, M., Shekell, P., Stewart, L.A., & PRISMA-P Group (2015). Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Systematic Reviews, 4(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/2046-4053-4-1
  • Nock, M.K., Deming, C.A., Fullerton, C.S., Gilman, S.E., Goldenberg, M., Kessler, R.C., McCarroll, J.E., McLaughlin, K.A., Peterson, C., Schoenbaum, M., Stanley, B. & Ursano, R.J. (2013). Suicide among soldiers: a review of psychosocial risk and protective factors. Psychiatry: Interpersonal & Biological Processes, 76(2), 97-125. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2013.76.2.97
  • Nock, M.K., Holmberg, E.B., Photos, V.I., & Michel, B.D. (2007). Self-Injurious Thoughts and Behaviors Interview: Development, reliability, and validity in an adolescent sample. Psychological Assessment, 19(3), 309–317. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.19.3.309
  • Organización Mundial de la Salud (2014). Prevención del suicidio: Un imperativo global. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/131056/9789241564779_eng.pdf?sequence=1
  • Organización Mundial de la Salud (2 de septiembre, 2019). Suicidio. https://www.who.int/es/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/suicide
  • Osman, A., Bagge, C.L., Gutierrez, P.M., Konick, L.C., Kopper, B.A., & Barrios, F.X. (2001). The Suicidal Behaviors Questionnaire-Revised (SBQ-R): validation with clinical and nonclinical samples. Assessment, 8(4), 443-454. https://doi.org/10.1177/107319110100800409
  • Panagioti, M., Angelakis, I., Tarrier, N., & Gooding, P. (2017). A prospective investigation of the impact of distinct posttraumatic (PTSD) symptom clusters on suicidal ideation. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 41(4), 645-653. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-016-9829-2
  • Panagioti, M., Gooding, P., & Tarrier, N. (2009). Post-traumatic stress disorder and suicidal behavior: A narrative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(6), 471-482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.05.001
  • Panagioti, M., Gooding, P.A., & Tarrier, N. (2012). A meta-analysis of the association between posttraumatic stress disorder and suicidality: the role of comorbid depression. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 53(7), 915-930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.02.009
  • Pietrzak, R.H., Tsai, J., Armour, C., Mota, N., Harpaz-Rotem, I., & Southwick, S.M. (2015). Functional significance of a novel 7-factor model of DSM-5 PTSD symptoms: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 174, 522-526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.12.007
  • Plutchik, R., Van Praag, H.M., Conte, H.R., & Picard, S. (1989). Correlates of suicide and violence risk: the suicide risk measure. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 30(4), 296-302.
  • Pollock, V., Cho, D.W., Reker, D., & Volavka, J. (1979). Profile of Mood States: the factors and their physiological correlates. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 167(10), 612-614. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-197910000-00004
  • Posner, K., Brown, G.K., Stanley, B., Brent, D.A., Yershova, K.V., Oquendo, M.A., & Mann, J.J. (2011). The Columbia–Suicide Severity Rating Scale: initial validity and internal consistency findings from three multisite studies with adolescents and adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(12), 1266-1277. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10111704
  • QualityMetric (2014). SF-8 Health Survey. QualityMetric.
  • Radloff, L.S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385-401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
  • Reynolds, W.M. (1991). Adult Suicide Ideation Questionnaire: Professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources.
  • Ruan, W.J., Goldstein, R.B., Chou, S.P., Smith, S.M., Saha, T.D., Pickering, R.P., & Grant, B.F. (2008). The alcohol use disorder and associated disabilities interview schedule-IV (AUDADIS-IV): reliability of new psychiatric diagnostic modules and risk factors in a general population sample. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 92(1-3), 27-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.06.001
  • Rudd, M.D., Berman, A.L., Joiner Jr, T.E., Nock, M.K., Silverman, M.M., Mandrusiak, M., ... & Witte, T. (2006). Warning signs for suicide: Theory, research, and clinical applications. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 36(3), 255-262. https://doi.org/10.1521/suli.2006.36.3.255
  • Rudd, M.D., Schmitz, B., McClenen, R., Joiner, T., Elkins, G., & Claassen, C. (2010). The Suicide Cognitions Scale: A suicide-specific measure of hopelessness. Journal of Abnormal Psychology.
  • Saunders, J.B., Aasland, O.G., Babor, T.F., De la Fuente, J.R., & Grant, M. (1993). Development of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption-II. Addiction, 88(6), 791-804. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1993.tb02093.x
  • Selaman, Z.M., Chartrand, H.K., Bolton, J.M., & Sareen, J. (2014). Which symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder are associated with suicide attempts? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 28(2), 246-251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.12.005
  • Selzer, M.L. (1971). The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test: The quest for a new diagnostic instrument. American Journal of Psychiatry, 127(12), 1653-1658. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.127.12.1653
  • Skinner, H.A. (1982). The drug abuse screening test. Addictive Behaviors, 7(4), 363-371. https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-4603(82)90005-3
  • Stanley, I.H., Rogers, M.L., Hanson, J.E., Gutierrez, P.M., & Joiner, T.E. (2019). PTSD symptom clusters and suicide attempts among high-risk military service members: A three-month prospective investigation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 87(1), 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000350
  • Steyn, R., Vawda, N., Wyatt, G.E., Williams, J.K., & Madu, S. N. (2013). Posttraumatic stress disorder diagnostic criteria and suicidal ideation in a South African Police sample. African Journal of Psychiatry, 16(1), 19-22. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajpsy.v16i1.3
  • Surís, A., Link-Malcolm, J., & North, C.S. (2011). Predictors of suicidal ideation in veterans with PTSD related to military sexual trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(5), 605-608. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20674
  • Tarrier, N., & Gregg, L. (2004). Suicide risk in civilian PTSD patients. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 39(8), 655-661.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-004-0799-4
  • Taylor, S., & Cox, B.J. (1998). An expanded anxiety sensitivity index: evidence for a hierarchic structure in a clinical sample. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 12(5), 463-483. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6185(98)00028-0
  • Van Orden, K.A., Cukrowicz, K.C., Witte, T.K., & Joiner Jr, T.E. (2012). Thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness: Construct validity and psychometric properties of the Interpersonal Needs Questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 24(1), 197. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025358
  • Van Orden, K.A., Witte, T.K., Cukrowicz, K.C., Braithwaite, S.R., Selby, E.A., & Joiner Jr, T.E. (2010). The interpersonal theory of suicide. Psychological Review, 117(2), 575. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025358
  • Watkins, L.E., Sippel, L.M., Pietrzak, R.H., Hoff, R., & Harpaz-Rotem, I. (2017). Co-occurring aggression and suicide attempt among veterans entering residential treatment for PTSD: The role of PTSD symptom clusters and alcohol misuse. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 87, 8-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.12.009
  • Weathers, F.W., Huska, J., & Keane, T. (1991). The PTSD Checklist Military Version (PCL-M). National Center for PTSD.
  • Weathers, F.W., Litz, B.T., Herman, D.S., Huska, J.A., & Keane, T.M. (1993). The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. In Annual convention of the international society for traumatic stress studies, San Antonio, TX (Vol. 462).
  • Weathers, F.W., Litz, B.T., Huska, J.A., & Keane, T.M. (1994). The PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C) for DSM-IV.National Center for PTSD, Behavioral Science Division. VA Boston Healthcare System.
  • Weathers, F.W., Litz, B.T., Keane, T.M., Palmieri, P.A., Marx, B.P., & Schnurr, P.P. (2013). The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) Scale. National Center for PTSD www.ptsd.va.gov
  • Weiss, D.S., & Marmar, C.R. (1997). The Impact of Event Scale-Revised. In J.P. Wilson, & T.M. Keane (Eds.), Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 399-411). Guilford Press.
  • Wilcox, H.C., Storr, C.L., & Breslau, N. (2009). Posttraumatic stress disorder and suicide attempts in a community sample of urban American young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66, 305–311. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.557
Data source: Dialnet